INDEX
Locators in italics indicate a figure. Enslaved individuals with identical names are differentiated by additional information in parentheses.
Abercorn Island, Georgia, 48. See also Belleisle Island, Georgia
Adams, John Quincy, 201, 259n100
adventurers: enslaved labor and, 213n6
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 87, 108, 205
invasion of Spanish Florida by, 125, 127
occupation of Amelia Island, 177, 201–3
Savannah and, 10. See also Bowles, William Augustus
enslavers (individuals): Alexander, Samuel
enslavers (individuals): Aury, Luis-Michel
African Americans: balance of power in Southeast and, 6
banditti and, 60
Black Colonial Marines and, 190
border zone antagonism by, 88–89, 90
as citizens of United States, 136
Creek raids and, 140–41
flight to Indian country, 7–8, 134, 153–54, 162
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 5, 59, 183, 205
Hispanic accommodation of, 113
narrative of self-emancipation and, 207
Prospect Bluff and, 187–88
return to Spanish Florida, 81
Revolutionary Savannah and, 62–63, 65–66
Second Spanish Period and, 6–7
sense of region and movement of, 112
Spanish plantation economy and, 113
stereotypes and, 89–90
Treaty of New York and, 136
vulnerability of, 90. See also Africans; Black Georgians; Black Seminoles; Black soldiers; flight; forced migration; freedom seekers
Africans: balance of power in Southeast and, 6
British Florida and, 160
captive-taking and, 70–71, 166, 167, 170, 202
as enslavers, 22
Florida settlement and, 128
Frederica slave trade and, 25–26
to Georgia after Patriot War, 254n101
Graham plantations and, 38, 39–40
Jamaica enslavers and, 90
Kinnard and, 138, 151, 154, 170
likelihood of flight, 56
loyalist, 79
McQueen relocation and, 117–18
points of origin of, 54
Prospect Bluff and, 196
Revolution and movement of, 51–52, 60, 69–70, 73
Savannah and lack of, 12
Southeast slave trade and, 34
Spanish plantation economy and, 113
St. Augustine slave trade and, 78–79
Stono Rebellion and, 23
West African groups and, 35–36. See also Black Seminoles; enslaved people; flight; freedom seekers
Age of Revolutions, 2–3
Ahaya, 157, 160, 163. See also Alachua Seminoles; Seminoles
Alachua Prairie, 7, 157, 160, 163, 198
Alachua Seminoles: Black Seminoles and, 169
dispersion of, 179–80
to Florida Lake Country, 182
role of, 6
State of Muskogee and, 170–71. See also Ahaya; Payne
Alachua towns, 162–63, 169, 198. See also Paynes Town
Allen, Robert, 168, 169, 252n57
Altamaha River. See Georgia-Florida frontier
Amelia Island, Florida: captive-taking on, 183
monitoring station on, 87
occupations of, 177, 183, 201–2
slave trade and, 123
as target, 201–2. See also Fernandina, Florida
American Revolution: awarding plantations after, 78–79
British army alliances during, 61
consequence for enslaved communities of, 72–73
defection from slavery during, 61–62
Georgia wariness of, 224n1
guerrilla bands in Southeast and, 60
recruitment of Black soldiers, 57–58
St Marys River and, 76. See also border war (Georgia-Florida frontier); Siege of Savannah
Andros Island, Bahamas, 201
Angola community, 182, 200–201, 259n101
Arbuthnot, Alexander, 200
Ashley, Nathaniel, 88
Atlantic creoles, 6–7, 21, 22, 36. See also creolization
Atlantic World, 4–6, 8, 57, 111–12, 204
Bailey, John, 88
Barnard, Timothy, 134, 144, 146–47
Bartram, William, 41
Battle of Bloody Marsh, 24
Battle of Horseshoe Bend, 189
Battle of the Rice Boats, 58–59
Battle of the Suwannee, 200
Bear Creek Island, 48
Beaufort, South Carolina, 15–16, 28, 46–47, 78, 222n65
Belleisle Island, Georgia, 47–48, 97, 222n70
Belleisle maroon community, 48–51, 97
Betty: background of, 1, 54–56, 225nn10–11
relocation of, 67–68
Biassou, Georges, 127
Blackbeard Island, Georgia, 115
Black Colonial Marines, 186, 189–90, 191, 194, 195, 256n47
Black Factor (Philatouche), 145–46, 155, 247n51
Black Georgians: Atlantic creole and, 6–7
balance of power in Southeast and, 8–9, 207–8
border conflicts and, 181, 254n1
British military service and, 192
connection with Atlantic World, 4
decline of opportunities for flight and, 205
escape to Tybee Island, 235n27
fighting white Georgians, 129, 159
flight planning of, 153
flight to Spanish Florida by, 2, 93, 105
Fort Mose and, 20–21
in Indian country, 8
Indian country and, 8
loyalist migration to Florida and, 70
Mikasuki War and, 167
sources and, 8
Titus and, 111
in Trusteeship Georgia, 29
War of 1812 and, 205. See also African Americans; Africans; Black sailors; Black Seminoles; Black soldiers; enslaved communities; enslaved people; freedom seekers; war captives
Black militias: aiding freedom seekers, 184
antagonism of planters by, 182–83
arming of, 64
defense of Spanish Florida by, 126
East Florida American support of, 125
fighting against Americans in Patriot War, 178–79
free, 7
Georgia freedom seekers and, 7
invasion of Spanish Florida and, 125–26
mini-rebellion defense by, 126–27
in post-siege Savannah, 66
protests of, 66
Spanish Florida as haven for, 176
of St. Augustine departure to Havana, 203
as strategy, 20
to supplement British army, 63–64
Thomas Brown and, 65–66
threat to Georgians of, 176, 183–84. See also Black Colonial Marines; Black soldiers; military service
Black-Native alliances, 40–41, 158, 174, 187, 189. See also Black Seminoles; Prospect Bluff
Black sailors: acceptance of, 14
Aury and, 202
captivity and, 26
collapse of Spanish Florida and, 201
escape and, 83
familiarity with waterways, 67
Frederica and, 25
Hercules, 53
image of, 84
imperial competition and, 18, 23–24
legacy of, 30–31
local knowledge of, 12
resistance by, 21–22
smuggling and, 61
ties to Atlantic world, 57
Titus and, 103
vulnerability of, 13. See also Hercules
Black Seminoles: after transfer of Florida, 206
Angola community and, 182, 200
balance of power in Southeast and, 7
cultural and, 175
culture and, 173–74
descriptions of, 173
expulsion from Florida, 174
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 159
as Hitchiti interpreters, 161–62
military prowess of, 179
Patriot War conflicts and, 178–79
planned invasion of Florida and, 168
recruitment of enslaved people, 161
relocation to Florida, 181–82
as “Seminole maroons,” 250n14
status in Seminole society, 107, 158–59, 173, 174–75
US grievances with, 178
villages of, 71
vulnerability of, 174
War of 1812 and, 159. See also Seminoles
Black slaveholders, 95
Black soldiers: Aury and, 202
banditti and, 60
Battle of Suwannee and, 200
being returned to enslavers, 66
collapse of Spanish Florida and, 201
Florida Rangers and, 59–60
Hercules as, 65
hope during Siege of Savannah for, 64
Nathanael Greene on, 79
in post-siege Savannah, 66
protests of, 66
records of, 65
reliance on others, 208
roles of, 65
status improvement for, 64
War of 1812 British recruitment of, 185–86
as warriors, 145, 146. See also Black Colonial Marines; Black militias; military service
Board of Officers for the Constituted Authority of East Florida, 177
Bolster, Jeffrey, 30
borderlands: definition of, 243–44n7
Florida/Georgia boundary and, 5
St. Marys River and, 75–76
turmoil along Spanish, 125. See also Georgia-Florida frontier
border patrolling, 138
borders of freedom, 197, 204, 206. See also flight; freedom seekers; Georgia-Florida frontier
border war (Georgia-Florida frontier), 59–61, 72, 76, 148. See also American Revolution; Georgia-Florida frontier
Bouchet, Blas de, 231n42
Bowles, William Augustus: background of, 118
captive-taking and, 171
Lang and, 168
loss of standing, 171–72
multiracial society of, 169
proclamation against, 169
removal and arrest of, 173
return and background of, 164–66
return of, 127
State of Muskogee and, 164, 166
Thompson ransom and, 172–73. See also Creeks; Seminoles
Bowles coup, 167–69
Britain: appeals to English common law and, 28
Black Colonial Marines and, 186
departure from Florida of, 77
motivation for War of 1812, 184–85
naval strategy along southern US coasts during War of 1812, 185
Prospect Bluff and, 187–88
recruitment of Black soldiers, 195
War of 1812 recruitment efforts, 186–87. See also Cochrane proclamation
British East Florida: border war and, 72
consequences of British departure of, 75
fleeing enslavers and, 70
freedom seekers and, 69–70, 72
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 159–60
loyalist hopes and Treaty of Paris in, 74–75
the “missing” during evacuation of, 230n15
options for freedom seekers, 2, 71, 72
post-Revolution populations in, 74
trade with Natives, 160. See also St. Augustine, Florida
British military, 57–58, 62–64. See also Black Colonial Marines; Cochrane proclamation; military service
Brown, Thomas, 2, 59, 65–66, 70–71
Brown, William, 210n10
Bryant, James, 88
Bullard, Mary, 254n1
Cabretta Island, Georgia, 115
Cain, William, 90
Camden County, Georgia: American settler flight to, 126
as borderland, 167
fear of Bowles and, 169
human trafficking and, 202
Native hunting parties and, 88
plantation economy and, 87
raiding in, 138–39, 148, 168, 199
Campbell, Archibald, 61, 62, 65
captive-taking: Africans and Revolution, 70–71
age of captives and, 142
Alexander raid, 183–84
by Americans, 59
Black Colonial Marines and, 194
Black Creek settlement and, 243n86
Black Seminole ransoming and, 174
border wars and, 147
collapse of Spanish Florida and, 201–2
Georgian attempts at, 232n52
by Georgians in Florida, 183
McQueen, 122–23
movement and, 3–4
as opportunistic, 142
for profit, 75
raids and, 146
“Rule of War” and, 147–48
Seminole, 107, 132, 158, 160, 166, 170–71
Spanish Florida and Native, 161
Thompson ransom and, 172–73
transgenerational slavery and, 153
Treaty of Colerain and, 147–48
Treaty of New York and, 136
war parties and, 138
white traders and, 134. See also return of freedom seekers; war captives
Carballo, Julian, 145
Caribbean: Atlantic World trade and, 4, 57
Black sailors and, 32–33
maroon communities, 42, 43, 97, 98, 196, 208
Native slavery in, 17
Caribbean, British: Black sailors and, 12, 15
British East Florida and, 74–75
experiences of enslaved people in, 38, 194
Caribbean, Spanish: Black militias and, 20
role of St. Augustine in, 16
welcoming of freedom seekers, 81, 90–91
Castillo de San Marcos, St. Augustine, 19, 23, 108, 164, 166, 170
Catholic Church, 94, 95, 96, 117, 122, 129
cattle: ranching, 35, 54, 57, 60, 150, 154–55, 157, 163
smuggling, 168
theft, 5, 68, 77, 88, 106, 110, 139, 146, 179, 241n57
trade, 158, 160, 173–74, 176, 247n59
Céspedes, Vicente Manuel de: arrival of, 77
Creek trade and, 71
freedom papers and, 124
granting of status, 95
John McQueen and, 117
population in St. Marys district and, 96
restoration of sanctuary policy, 161
return of freedom seekers and, 80–81, 86
settlement in Florida and, 113–14
Chappedelaine, Marquis de, 117, 124
Charles II, King of Spain, 19
Charles IV, King of Spain, 90
Charleston, South Carolina: Black sailors and, 12–14, 84
Black soldiers and, 49, 123, 125
founding of, 16–17
holding of loyalist enslaved people, 116
slave trade and, 34. See also Stono Rebellion
Charles Town, South Carolina. See Charleston, South Carolina
Chasseurs-Volontaires, 64
Chatham County, Georgia, 83, 140–41, 223n75, 235–36n39
Chehaws, 144–45, 147, 152–53, 155
Chiaja (Creek town), 145
Clarke, Alured, 72
Cochrane, Alexander, 186–87
Cochrane proclamation, 186–87, 190, 193, 195, 255n21
Cockburn, George, 185–86, 190, 193–96, 258n71
Commissary of Refugees in St. Augustine, 72, 78
communication networks: Black Seminoles and, 161
couriers and cowboys in, 134
enslaved communities and, 58
freedom seekers and, 47
movement and, 13–14
outmigration of Florida enslaved people and, 79–80
role of, 112
sailors and, 21
white traders and, 134
cotton frontier, 205
Coweta (Creek town), 134
Creagh, Sebastian, 235n31
Creeks: after War of 1812, 196
Agency of, 147
agricultural commodities of, 134–35
Alabama Territory settlement and, 205
alliance with Andrew Jackson, 201
American attacks on, 146
appeal to enslaved people of, 133, 134–35
border zone and, 77
British recruitment of, 187
captive-taking practices of, 134–35
Cochrane proclamation and, 187
defectors of, 157–58
enforcement of Treaty of New York and, 143
freedom seekers and, 7–8, 40, 41–42
“gifts” from British and, 147–48
map of territory of, 185
McGillivray and, 142
“mother towns” of, 134
origin of Seminoles and, 156
ownership claims and slave trade in, 149
population estimates, 243n3
property of, 147–48
raids into Georgia, 138–39
ranching and livestock sales of, 150–51
Red Sticks, 188
return of freedom seekers, 152–53
“Rules of War” and, 147–48
Seminoles connection with, 155
slave-holding and, 41, 135, 142, 150–51, 153
Spanish sanctuary policy and, 161
Spanish supply of, 105
territory of, 41
trade and, 71
Treaty of Colerain and, 147
Treaty of Fort Jackson and, 189
Treaty of New York and, 135–36
Upper and Lower Towns of, 133–34. See also Creek War; Seminoles
Creek War, 188–89
creoles, 105
creolization, 11–12, 27. See also Atlantic creoles
Cruden, John, 74–75
Cuba, 34, 83, 90. See also Third Battalion of Cuba
cultural mixing, 77
Cumberland Island, Georgia, 115, 189–90, 194–95, 258n71
Curaçao, 27
Cusick, James, 125
Cussita (Creek town), 134
“Damsel” of Savannah, 14–15
Davis, Caleb, 14–16, 17–18, 21–23, 26
DeBrahm, William, 38
deerskin trade: Carolina, 17
Creeks and decline of, 143–44, 147, 149
enslaved labor and, 213n6
merchants, 213n6
Panton, Leslie & Company, 179–80
war captives and, 160
De Lancey, Stephen, 65
d’Estaing, Count (Charles Henri Hector), 63
Diouf, Sylviane, 43–44, 49, 101, 102, 111
dislocation, 3, 60. See also forced migration
dispossession of Native land, 135–36, 138
Dominic beating, 130–31
Dumore, Earl of (John Murray), 58
Dumoussay, François, 117
Dutch Atlantic. See Curaçao
East Florida Papers, 86
Egmont, Earl of (John Perceval). See Perceval, John
Ellicot, Andrew, 166
Elliott, Dan, 65
Elliott, Grey, 224n5
Elliott, Rita, 65
emancipation, 49, 52, 129, 197. See also self-emancipation
Embargo Act, 128
“Empire of Liberty,” 105
enslaved communities: arrival conditions in St. Augustine, 118
border war and southern Georgia, 60
Butler, 192–93
common origins and experience and, 68
consequence of Revolution for, 72–73
free status of family groups and, 80
Hampton, 192–93
identity formation in, 56
influence of African Americans from Florida on, 79–80
integration of, 56
John McQueen and, 116–19
Los Molino plantation, 119–20
loyalist evacuations and, 78
Morel community and, 103–5
relocation of, 70
San Pablo, 121
Shipyard plantation, 121. See also Black Georgians; captive-taking; maroon communities; war captives
enslaved people: on abandoned properties in Savannah, 62
advantage of imperial conflict for, 23
age and evaluation of, 131–32
American migration to Florida and, 114
appeal of Creek Confederacy for, 133, 134–35
appeal of Spanish Florida for, 133
Aury and, 202–3
Black slaveholders and, 95
border zone and, 77
branding of, 144–45
British East Florida importation of, 160
British offers of freedom for, 186
British return of self-emancipated, 67, 72
Carolina enslavers and, 32
Catholicism and, 122
changing nature of Creek slavery and, 153
Creeks and, 41, 134, 138–41, 146, 149, 151–52
cultural practices of, 38
end of Revolution and seizure of, 116
enslaver views of, 195
evacuation to St. Augustine and, 46
French, 154
Georgia census and, 30, 218n92
Hispanic legal system and, 123
hope during Siege of Savannah for, 64
illicit use of, 213n6
as intermediaries, 53–54
John Graham and, 44–47
loyalist planter relocation of, 70
mini-rebellion and, 127
Ossabaw communities of, 55–56, 57
paths to emancipation for, 129
planter-Creek negotiations over, 148
post-Patriot War surveillance of, 180
post-Revolution awarding of plantations and, 78–79
under protection of British, 195
reclaiming by Americans of, 80–81
refusal to be sold to Natives, 154
regions of origin of, 35–37
registration of, 80
renting of, 151
responses to sanctuary policy by, 81–82
role during Creek raids, 140–41
“seasoning” and, 38
Seminoles and, 158
Siege of Savannah and, 44–45
Spanish plantation economy and, 113
St. Augustine and outmigration of, 78
St. Marys and, 167
trafficking of, 150
Treaty of Colerain and, 147–48
Treaty of New York and, 146
US perception of Seminole influence on, 178
War of 1812 British recruitment of, 185–86
white traders in Creek territory and, 150. See also Africans; Black Colonial Marines; Black Georgians; flight; forced migration
enslaved people (individuals), Nelly, Prince, Whitten, 81–82
Agrippa, 142
Alexander, 96–97
Amy, 120
Andres, 203
Anthony, 56
Bacas, Isaac, 203
Beck, 103
Betsy, 8
Big Peter, 189
Billy (Bryan), 67
Billy (Girardeau), 150
Bina, 121
Boatswain, 188
Byron, 140
Caesar, 169
Camel, Bacchus, 80
Camel, Betty, 80
Carolina, 56
Catalina (Kitty), 203
Cate, 142
Cesar, 102
Charles, 56
Clarisa, 121
Cloe, 148
Cook, 47
Cooper, 141
Cuffy, 39
Daniel, 100
Dembo, 47
Diana (Ossabaw), 56
Diana (Sanders), 95
Dido, 148
Eley, 150
Ellis, 61
Elsey, 103
Fanny, 150
Fish, Eva, 203
Frank, 47
Harry (Forbes), 200–201
Isaac, 85
Isaac (raid), 146
Isaac (Walthour), 141
Ismael, 234n25
Jack (Angola), 1–2, 68, 71, 160
Jack (Edimboro), 167
Jack (Los Molinos), 120
Jack (Morel), 225n10
Jacob (Cashen), 174
Jacob (Los Molinos), 120
James (Bisset), 82
James (Los Molinos), 120
January, 141
Jeffrey, 103
Jenny, 225n10
Jimmy, 140
Justo, 203
Kate, 56
Katy, 80
London, 142
Lucy, 155
Lycurgus, 130
Maria (McQueen), 130
Maria (McQueen) (daughter), 130
Mary, 150
Mary Ann, 82
McAphee, 140
McCully, Nancy, 123–25
McQueen, Harry, 116, 121, 122, 129
Miley, 141
Minah, 131–32
Molly (Black Seminole), 173
Molly (Morel), 56
Monday, 78
Nancy (Joe), 56
Nancy (Los Molinos), 120
Nancy (Sharper), 51
Ned, 82
Nero, 199
Old Betty, 193
Orange (Walthour), 141
Patty, 100
Paul, 121
Pearce, 141
Pedro, 236n49
Peggy (Guerard), 47
Peggy (Woodmanston), 140
Peter (Black Seminole), 162
Peter (Graham), 40
Peter (Houstoun), 106–7
Peter, John, 8, 26–29, 31, 217n86
Phebe, 56
Phiana, 140
Plato, 110
Polly, 82
Primus, 82
Prince (Girardeau), 150
Prince (Hercules), 1
Rachel (Smith), 150
Rachel (Walthour), 141
Rose, 103
Rose (Perpall), 188
Sam (B. Morel), 102
Sam (Girardeau), 142
Sam (J. Morel), 56
Sam (Los Molinos), 120
Sam (Wayne), 79
Samson, 140
Sancho (Bisset), 82
Sancho (Hampton), 194
Sarah (raid), 146
Sarah (Smith), 149
Sary (Walthour), 141
Sechem, 47
Sharper (Captain Cudjoe), 49, 50, 51, 222n70, 223n73
Smith, James, 139–40, 146, 149–50
Smith, John, 238n9
Somerset, 39
Sophia, 120
Spaniard, John, 184
Stephen, 39
Stepney, 39
Sue, 103
Theresa, 120
Tise, 56
Tom (Cannon’s Point), 194
Tom (Carolina), 56, 99, 234n21
Tom (Graham), 40
Tom (Morel), 102
Tom-boy (Woodmonston), 140
Venus, 56
Whitten, Glasgow, 94
Whitten, Peter, 81–82
Whitten, Polly, 94
Will, 97
Winter, 1
Ysnardy, Pedro, 203
Ysnardy, Teresa, 203
Zambo, 145. See also Betty; Hercules; Mahomet; McCully, Nancy; Simmons, Ned; Titus; Whitten, Prince
enslavers (individuals): Aiken, James, 154
Alexander, Samuel, 183–84
Aury, Luis-Michel, 202–3
Baillie, Robert, 70–71
Barnard, Timothy, 189
Bell, George, 70
Berrien, John, 140–41
Bisset, Alexander, 82
Bisset, Charles, 70
Bourquin, Henry, 224n5
Brown, Alexander, 224n6
Bryan, Jonathan, 67
Burnett, John, 140
Butler, Pierce, 192–93
Cashen, James, 174
Cashen, Richard, 183
Chapman, William, 59
Clarke, Elijah, 126–27
Clee, Samuel, 29
Creighton, Alexander, 84
Cunningham, William, 81
Davies, John, 84
Deane, John, 34, 35–36, 219n14
Dell, Philip, 130
Dell, William, 130–31
Douglass, John, 47
Dupont, Jesse, 161
Edimboro, Felipe, 95, 126, 129, 167
Egmont, Lady Isabella, 77
Fatio, Francis Philip, Jr., 171
Fatio, Francis Phillipe, 170–71
Fatio, Philip Francis, 96
Fleming, George, 166
Garvin, David, 154
Gibbons, Thomas, 67
Graham, John, 37–38, 40, 44–45, 46, 220n25, 222n65
Greene, Nathanael, 78–79, 115, 190–91
Habersham, James, 220n25
Habersham, Joseph, 35
Harper, Solomon, 139–40
Hispanic norms and, 122
Hodson, 61
Hoopawnee, 151–52
Jackson, James, 83
Jumalathluychee (Big Eater), 148
Kenty, 82
King, Roswell, 192–93, 195, 256n47
Lawrence, Fenda, 36
LeConte, John Eatton, 140, 141
MacKay, Eliza McQueen, 122, 131
Manley, Henry, 25
Martial, Thomas, 150
Maxey, Robert, 110
Maybeck, Andrew, 141–42
McGillivray, Alexander, 136, 142–43, 156
McGillivray, Lachlan, 65
McGirt, Daniel, 127
McIntosh, George, 61
McIntosh, John Henry, 128–29, 182
McIntosh, John Houstoun, 175
McQueen, Anna Smith, 114
McQueen, John, 106, 107–8, 114, 166, 168
McQueen, John, Jr., 122, 129, 131–32
Mercer, Samuel, 167
Middleton, Arthur, 19
Milligan, John, 80
Mitchell, David, 178, 183, 184
Morel, Bryan, 100, 102, 122, 235–36n39, 235n31, 236n41
Morel, Mary, 63, 67–68, 201n2, 227n41, 235–36n39
Mullryne, John, 27–28
O’Neil, Ferdinand, 84
Patterson, Alexander, 88
Paysan, Christopher, 86
Powers, Richard, 174
Richard, Francis, Jr., 129, 132
Richard, Louis Joseph de François, 129, 130–31, 166
Ross, James, 167
Sanchez, Francisco, 75
Sanders, John, 95
Shaw, Louise Greene, 192
Shepherd, Peter, 13
Stedham, J., 189
Swarback, Edward, 123
Thompson, William, 13
Tondee, Peter, 67
Turnbull, Andrew, 94
Watt, Alexander, 123
Weed, Jacob, 81–82
Whitehead, John, 148
Wright, Alexander, 223n73
Wright, Charles, 59
Wylly, Alexander, 43
Xavier Sanchez, Francisco, 95
Young, William, 81
Zubly, John, 64. See also Hawkins, Benjamin; McQueen, John; Morel, John; planters, American; Seagrove, James
escape. See flight
Ethiopian Regiment, 58
European-African unions, 130
evacuation of loyalists, 75
family: disruption of, 72
Native integration and, 134–35
plantation slavery and, 192
Fernandez Bendicho, Manuel, 94
Fernandina, Florida, 128, 175, 176, 177, 201, 202–3
First Seminole War, 181–82, 200–201. See also Seminoles
Fleming, George, 91
flight: after War of 1812, 205
August mandate and, 105
Belleisle maroon community and, 51
Black resistance and, 8
Bowles communities and, 169
canoes and, 86
challenges of, 39
Cochrane proclamation and, 186–88, 190, 193–94
communication networks and, 47, 101
to Creek territory, 151–53
dislocation and, 3
to enslaved communities, 89
gender and, 47–48
geography and, 3
from Georgia after Patriot War, 184
Guerard plantation and, 50
intervention of drivers in, 194
John Peter and, 27–28
large fugitive groups and, 83
Lucy and, 155
maroon communities and communication of, 101
Nancy McCully and, 123
Native protection and, 71
post-siege Savannah and, 67
promises of war for, 54
prospects of war for, 59
psychology of, 84–85
records of, 86–87
during Revolution, 51–52
as safety valve, 160
sanctuary in East Florida and, 82–83
to St. Augustine, 21
US acquisition of Florida and, 204
varieties of, 3–4
water travel and, 69
weighing costs of, 207. See also freedom seekers
Florida: boundary with Georgia, 5
British departure from, 75, 77
restriction of free Blacks in U.S., 206
transfer of imperial control in, 71
Treaty of Paris (1783) and, 46–47, 222n64. See also British East Florida; Georgia-Florida frontier; Spanish Florida; St. Augustine, Florida
Florida-Georgia frontier. See Georgia-Florida frontier
Florida Rangers, 59–60, 65, 70
forced migration: African Americans, Georgia-Florida frontier, and, 183
captive-taking and, 183
enslaved outmigration from British Florida, 78
loyalist evacuations and, 3, 72
movement and, 183
outmigration from St. Augustine and, 78
to Spanish Florida, 113, 115, 117–18, 127–28
Forrester, John, 145
Fort George Island, 118
Fort James, 152–53
Fort St. Marks. See Castillo de San Marcos, St. Augustine
Fort St. Nicholas, 126
Fort Williams, 140
Fowltown, 198–200
France, 125–26
Frederica, Georgia, 17, 24–26, 28–29, 213n6. See also St. Simons Island, Georgia
free Blacks: Angola community and, 200
Black Seminole settlement and, 182
captive-taking and, 183
Chasseurs-Volontaires and, 64
demographics of Southeast and, 87
Georgia captive-taking and, 183
hope during Siege of Savannah for, 64
John Peter case and, 217n86
registration of, 80
role in flight, 6
role in Spanish society, 122
State of Muskogee and, 173
St. Augustine and, 16, 20, 31, 114, 206, 233n3
St. Marys and, 167
supervision and control of, 89
three-caste society and, 122
trade with Seminoles, 176
wage labor in Spanish Florida and, 96. See also Prospect Bluff
freedom: context of Spanish Florida and, 93
formality of, 3
free status and, 80
geography of, 2–3
limits of, 54
freedom seekers: agreement for return of, 105
Alachua towns and, 162–63
American revolutionary forces and, 64
Apalachicola fort during War of 1812 and, 187
appeal of Seminoles for, 156
arrest in Spanish Florida, 102
arrival in postwar British East Florida, 74
Atlantic world and, 111–12
behavior of and attempt to control, 96–97
Black Colonial Marines and, 186
Black Seminoles and, 159
border zone and, 77
border zone uprising and, 108
British East Florida and, 69–70, 72
British offers of freedom for, 186
British policy in Savannah and, 67
capture of, 44
Catholic Church and, 94, 95, 96
Cochrane proclamation and, 186–87, 195
communication by, 47
consequences of Revolution for, 72–73
coordination of escape of, 101
costs of flight for, 207
as counter-narrative, 8
Creek confederacy and, 41–42
Creek Nation and, 7
Creek return of, 152–53
from Creek territory, 154–55
cultural plasticity of, 207–8
demand for return of, 91
demographics and motivations of, 44
demographics of, 222n69
escape to Native societies, 151–52
escape to reconnect with family, 221n55
fear of, 89
flight from Georgia after Patriot War, 184
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 159
Georgia origins of, 4
hope during Siege of Savannah for, 64
hostility toward, 54
integration and, 111
integration into Spanish Florida, 93
joining Seminoles, 166
knowledge of possibilities for, 112
large groups of, 83
maroon communities and, 42–44
military service and, 58
movement in Southeast of, 3
multiple definition of freedom for, 206
narratives of, 8
Native protection and, 71
Native societies and, 160
options in British East Florida, 71, 72
origins of, 4
petitioning of, 18
planter complaints about, 223n75
policy and, 82–83
post-siege escape and, 67
in pre-siege Savannah, 63
promise of maroon communities, 98
protection of Britain for, 62
reaffirmation of sanctuary and, 81
restoration of sanctuary policy and, 161, 171
return agreements and, 108–9, 110
in revolutionary Savannah, 62
runaway notices and, 39–40
sanctuary and, 18–19
sanctuary in Spanish Empire for, 81–82
Savannah River maroon communities and, 109
Seminole communities and, 7
Seminoles and, 106–7, 110, 158
Spanish Florida as sanctuary for, 176
Spanish/US agreement over, 97
State of Muskogee and, 170
Thompson ransom and, 172
Titus as emblematic for, 99
transportation to St. Augustine, 58
Underground Railroad and, 5–6
war captives and, 141
water travel and, 69. See also Black sailors; flight; maroon communities; marronage; Prospect Bluff
French Blacks, 130
French navy, 63
French refugees, 77
“frontier,” 243–44n7
frontiersmen, American, 113–14, 126–27, 129, 183, 208
fugitive notices, 39–40, 228n65, 234n25, 235n28, 236n41
fugitives. See freedom seekers Fugitive Slave Law, 3
Galphin, George, 145
Genêt, Edmund-Charles, 125
George II, King of England, 32
Georgia: agency and, 8
under authority of Board of Trade, 32
as backwater region, 4
Black Colonial Marine advances in, 194
border as transition zone, 76–77
boundary with Florida, 5
British subsidies for, 214n29
census in, 218n92
concerns with flight of Black populations, 184
demographics of, 19
distrust of Spanish Florida, 105
failed border invasions by, 60
fears of insurrection in, 180
importance of Caribbean for, 32–33
interception of Aury captives, 202–3
invasion of Spanish Florida and, 125–26
Kinnard raids into, 138
maroon communities in, 42, 43–44
movement of freedom seekers and, 3–4
order for provisions for enslaved laborers, 63
Patriot War and Africans to, 254n101
perception of Spanish Florida, 176
planter concerns with East Florida sanctuary policy in, 83
populations of people of African descent in, 34, 37–38
post-Revolution migration from Florida to, 78
power of groups in, 6
prohibition of slavery in, 10, 17
reluctance to join Revolutionary cause, 53
removal of slavery ban in, 30
restoration of plantation economy in, 227n39
return agreements and, 110
shipping in, 85–86
sidestepping slavery policy of, 24–26
slavery and, 24–25, 33, 122–23
spread of Cochrane proclamation in, 187
termination of Trusteeship in, 32
threats of armed conflict between Florida and, 87
Treaty of Paris and, 4
Trustees of, 24–25
as vulnerable state, 58–59
wariness of Revolution in, 224n1
War of 1812 map of, 185
women in, 14–15. See also border war (Georgia-Florida frontier); Savannah, Georgia; Sea Islands; Trustee Georgia; individual counties
Georgia-Florida frontier: activity in, 76–77
American uprising in, 108
Black and Native antagonism in, 88–89, 90
Black Seminoles and, 159
border patrolling in, 138
border war on, 59–61, 72, 76, 148
consequences of conflicts on, 181
limitations of US power in, 91–92
maroon communities and, 101
marronage and, 93
Mikasuki recruitment and, 167
Native Americans and trading posts in, 88
populations in, 87
Seminoles and, 106
smuggling and, 87–88
Spanish-American relations and, 110
St. Marys and, 167
trade activity in, 134
Treaty of Paris (1783) and, 4
warfare in, 235n27. See also borderlands
German Pietists, 29–30
Glynn County, Georgia, 87, 105, 138–39, 148, 232n56
Gould, Elijah, 6
Gracia Réal de Santa Teresa de Mose, Florida, 20–22
Greene County, Georgia, 138
guerrilla fighters, 42, 45, 49, 75–76, 87, 98. See also Florida Rangers
Handley, Scipio, 64
Hanscomb, William, 64
Harris, Buckner, 183
Hassett, Thomas, 94, 122, 233n3
Hawke, Baron (Edward Hawke), 69
Hawkins, Benjamin, 147, 169–70, 182, 187–89, 248n67
Haynes, Joshua, 138
headright system, 114
Hercules: as Atlantic World sailor, 57, 61
communication and, 53–54
escape to St. Augustine, 69, 71, 100
forced return of, 67–68, 210n2
Jack and, 68
movement and, 8
relocation of, 210n2
Revolutionary Savannah and, 63
as soldier, 65
St. Augustine and, 66
Hibberson, Jose, 184
Highland Scots, 29–30
“hinterland” maroons, 102, 111. See also maroon communities; marronage
Hopothle Mico (Creek), 137
Hornsby, John, 88–89
Howard, Carlos, 87, 106–7, 161–62, 235n29, 236n49
human trafficking, 167, 168, 202. See also captive-taking; war captives
Hume, John, 80
illicit trade. See smuggling
Innerarity, John, 196
insurrection fears, 180
integration of freedom seekers, 56, 111, 207
Iverson, Justin, 254n2
Jackson, Andrew, 174, 182, 189, 200, 201, 259n100
Jackson, James, 50, 58–59, 146, 153, 169
“jack tars,” 32
Jefferson, Thomas, 90, 91, 105
Jennison, Watson W., 254n1
Johnson, Sherry, 233n3
kidnapping. See captive-taking
Kinache: Bowles and, 118
influence of, 171–72
purchase of enslaved people, 174
raids and, 170
as Seminole leader, 163–64, 175
State of Muskogee and, 170
use of Bowles, 166. See also Mikasuki Seminoles; Seminoles
Kinnard, John “Jack”: acquisition of enslaved people, 138
Africans and, 138, 151, 154, 170
background of, 135
on Black Factor, 145–46
border patrolling and, 138
character of, 143–44
claims on enslaved people, 148–50
freedom seekers and, 8
house of, 136
influence of, 171–72
investment in Spanish Florida, 151
Mithology and, 170
negotiations with, 142–43
purchase of foreign enslaved people, 154
raids into Georgia by, 138
as Seminole leader, 138
Seminoles and, 155
slave trade and, 154–55
spelling of, 244n15
Swan appraisal of, 136
as symbol of Creeks embracing American slavery, 153
Thompson ransom and, 172–73
trade and, 134
Treaty of Colerain and, 147
Treaty of New York and, 144, 146–47
war captives and, 148. See also Creeks; Seminoles
Kinnard, William “Billy,” 151, 172
Lafayette, Marquis de (Gilbert du Motier), 115
Lang, Richard, 88, 168, 169, 241n57. See also 1795 Rebellion in East Florida
Liberty County, Georgia, 138–39, 140–41
live oaking, 57, 115. See also lumber trade
Liverpool, Earl of (Robert Jenkinson), 185
“living wall of industrious citizens,” 114
Lockley, Timothy, 222n69, 223n76
Long Warrior (Micco Chlucco), 157
Lower Towns (Creek), 133–34, 136, 145, 151, 154, 170
loyalists: African, 79
Black soldiers and, 65
border zone and, 77
British East Florida and, 74–75, 77
enslaved people and evacuation of, 123–24
Florida Rangers and, 59
Georgia-Florida frontier, 183, 205
hopes for British East Florida, 74–75
labor force trade and, 78
property rights of, 67
raid of Morel estate, 225n12
registration of Black people and, 80
settlement in Spanish Florida, 113–14
St. Marys and, 87–88
Treaty of Paris (1783) and, 46
lumber trade, 33, 119, 120–21, 128–29, 175. See also live oaking
Madison, James, 176–77
Mahomet, 8, 34–39, 42, 44–47, 50–52, 78
Malcontents of Georgia, 24, 29
Marion, Francis, 81
maroon communities: Angola, 182, 200–201, 259n101
appeal of, 111
Belleisle Island and, 47–50, 97
Black Seminoles and, 107, 158, 174, 250n14
Bowlegs Town and, 199
Caribbean, 42, 43, 97, 98, 196, 208
Chiaja and, 145
commonalities among, 98
Garçon and, 197
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 101
Great Dismal Swamp and, 97–98
Gulf Coast wars and, 254n2
Jamaica and, 43–44
largest in US, 234n19
Prospect Bluff and, 196
as threat, 223n76
Titus’ motivation for establishing, 110
White Georgian attack of, 109–10
Wolmar attack by, 223n79. See also Black Seminoles
marronage: in Americas, 43–44
benefits of, 51
many faces of, 93
maroon as term, 97
motivations for raids and, 49–50
recruitment and, 109
transnational perspective of, 112.
Marsh, Ben, 14–15
Matthews, George, 177
McQueen, John: acceptance of Hispanic norms, 122
background of, 115
baptism of, 239n24
Black militias and, 125, 126–27, 129
change in perception of enslaved people, 121–22
as commander of naval forces, 126
death of, 129
debt problems of, 116–17, 128, 131
evacuating loyalist enslaved populations and, 124
Florida plantations of, 118–21
as godparent to Black children, 129
influence on Spanish land policy, 117
lumbering and, 115–16, 119, 120–21
migration and conversion of, 117
Nancy McCully legal challenge and, 123–25
origins of enslaved communities of, 116
plantation profitability and, 128
preparation of estate, 128–29
pursuit of Bowles, 118
role in Florida of, 115
Seminole attacks and, 127
sexual exploitation of Black women, 129–30
Spanish favoring of, 120–21
as speculator, 115–16
violence, slave trade and, 122–23
McQueen-Kingsley House, 119
Menendez, Francisco, 22–23
merchants: Carolina deerskin, 17
Fort Mose and, 22
indigo and, 61
Savannah plantations owned by, 219n22
signares and, 36
slave trade and, 37, 66, 227n39
St. Augustine and, 94
War of Jenkins’ Ear and, 24
Metawney, 145
Middle Passage, 20, 35, 68, 116
Mikasuki (town), 151, 159, 163–64, 182, 198, 200
Mikasuki Seminoles: Cochrane proclamation and, 187
flight to, 7
Jackson invasion of Florida and, 182, 200
raiding and autonomy of, 164, 166
return of captives and, 171–72
Southeast power dynamics and, 6
town network of, 198
transfer of Florida and, 205–6. See also Kinache; Seminoles
Mikasuki-Spanish War, 166–69, 179. See also Bowles, William Augustus; State of Muskogee
military service: free status and, 80
instability of status from, 89–90
as route to improved status, 58, 59–60, 62–67
status improvement and British, 185–86
status improvement through, 123
Milledge, John, 149
Milledge, Martha Galphin, 149
Millett, Nathaniel, 196, 197, 200, 234n19
mixed-race families, 129–30, 242n74
Moncrief, James, 62
Monroe, James, 177, 203, 259n100
Montiano, Manuel de, 18–19, 22, 24, 215n36
Morel, John: background and acquisition of enslaved laborers, 54–56, 224nn5–6, 225n10
failure to pay taxes, 235–36n39
runaway notice from, 104
Savannah businesses of, 57
Morel, Juan: runaway notice from, 203
mortality: captured Americans and, 194
Creeks raids and, 40–41, 138–39, 197, 200
plantations and, 37–38, 45, 51, 128, 151, 220n30
Moultrie, John, 160
movement of freedom seekers in the Southeast, 3–4, 111–12. See also Black Georgians; captive-taking; dislocation; flight; forced migration
freedom seekers Mulcahy, Matthew, 221n55
Mullins, Michael, 221n51
Mulroy, Kevin, 250n14
Musgrove, Mary, 26
Muskogeans, 41, 143. See also Creeks; Seminoles; State of Muskogee
Muslims of African descent, 36–37, 39
Nash, Gary, 62
Native Americans: autonomy of, 71–72
blaming Americans, 107
border zone and, 88
border zone antagonism by, 88
fear of, 106
frontier war and, 145
plantation raids and, 132
Prospect Bluff and, 197
resistance in Northwest Territory, 184–85
Spanish raiding parties and, 19
St. Augustine and, 16. See also Creeks; Seminoles
Native-Black alliances, 40–41, 158, 174, 187, 189. See also Black Seminoles; Prospect Bluff
Neamathla (Seminole), 199
Nelly, 56, 99, 103, 105, 107, 234n21
Nephew, James, 184
Newnan, Daniel, 178–79
New Orleans, Louisiana, 187
Nicolls, Edward, 187, 194, 196, 200
Nootka Sound Crisis, 91
obeah, 38
Oconee War, 136
Oglethorpe, James: appeal to Parliament by, 17
Caleb Davis and, 14
Frederica and, 25
Parliament reimbursement of, 216n64
return of slaves and, 22
role of, 10
siege of St. Augustine by, 23–24
Stono Rebellion and, 23
Okefenokee Swamp, 134
Onís, Luis de, 201. See also treaties: Treaty of Adams-Onís
order to supply enslaved laborers for fortifications, 63
“Osman the Maroon in the Swamp,” 98
Ossabaw Island: community on, 68, 99–101
map of, 55
plantations and, 1, 53–54, 56, 225n16
smuggling and, 61
Owsley, Frank, 197
Panton, Leslie & Company: Brown, Creek trade, and, 71
deerskin trade and, 179–80
human trafficking and, 148, 154, 155
Parker, Henry, 28–29
Patriot War, 131, 159, 177–80, 254n101
Payne, 162–64, 169, 171, 174–75. See also Alachua Seminoles; Seminoles
Perceval, John, 11
Perryman, George, 199
Perryman, Tom. See Kinache Philatouche (Black Factor), 145–46, 155, 247n51
Philips, Jack, 172
Philipsburg Declaration, 124
picaroons, 61. See also privateering
DuBignon, 189
Dungeness, 132
Girardeau, 141
Hamilton, 195
Horseshoe Creek, 121
Maybank, 152
McGillivray, 142
Middle Place, 56
Montieth, 44
Morel plantations, 1–2, 56, 63, 99, 101–5 passim, 109, 111
Mulberry Grove, 37–38, 39, 44, 51, 79, 190
North End, 56
Perpall, 188
of Pierce Butler, 192–93
San Diego, 95
San Juan, 128
San Pablo, 121
Shipyard (Canefield), 121, 129
South End, 56
Tweedside, 99
plantations, post-Revolution awarding of, 78–79
plantation system, 38–39, 55–57, 113, 192–93, 220n30
planters, American: creditors and, 114, 238n7
Creeks and ownership claims of, 149
departures with enslaved people, 70
fear of freedom seekers by, 89
migration to Florida by, 113–14
negotiations with Creeks, 148
restitution and invasion threats by, 86–87
return from Florida to Georgia, 182–83. See also enslavers (individuals)
Porbeck, Friedrich von, 66
Prévost, Augustine, 59, 62, 64, 65
Price, Richard, 93
privateering, 15–16, 26, 61, 201–2, 235n27
Proclamation of 1738, 21
Proclamation of Good Government, 96
Prospect Bluff, 187–88, 189, 195–99
provisioning, 17–18, 36, 57, 101, 118–19, 171
punishment of enslaved people, 40, 44, 51, 106, 207
quarantines due to smallpox, 34, 218n9
Quesada, Juan Nepomuceno de, 90–91, 96, 101–2, 117, 118, 126
raiding: accounts of, 139–40
Alexander and, 183–84
Black warriors and, 145
British East Florida and captive, 70
evacuation of white people during, 140–41
experience of, 139
Florida/Georgia border, 59–60
Georgia and Creek, 138–39
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 145, 199
by maroon communities, 42–43
as opportunity for enslaved people, 141
picaroons and, 61
planter reports and, 141–42
role of Black Americans during, 140–41
Seminoles and, 170
on Trader’s Hill, 144
vulnerability of forts to, 140
Woodmanston plantation, 140. See also captive-taking; war captives
ransoming. See captive-taking
Rediker, Marcus, 21–22
Reds Bay, 201
Red Sticks, 188–89, 196, 199. See also Creeks; Creek War
refugees, Black: among Seminoles after Prospect Bluff, 199
Angola community and, 182
British East Florida and, 72
British navy relocation of, 58
Creek territory and, 41–42, 153
as “dancers,” 97
as soldiers, 64
St. Augustine and, 71. See also Commissary of Refugees in St. Augustine; freedom seekers
refugees, loyalist, 69, 70, 230
regidores, 96
registration of Black people, 80
resistance: absence of maroon dimensions and, 221n51
Black sailors and, 22
freedom seekers and, 8
in Southeast, 208
Stono Rebellion and, 23
Tecumseh and, 184–85
walkoffs and, 193–95. See also flight
return of freedom seekers: agreements for, 108–9, 110
Angola community and, 259n101
Bowles and, 169–70
Cockburn and, 258n71
Creeks and, 149–50
end of War of 1812, 195
fugitives and, 105
negotiations for, 152
Seagrove and, 91
Seminoles and, 171
Thompson ransom and, 172–73. See also treaties; war captives
revolutionary Atlantic, 164, 166, 196, 197
Royal Marines, 187, 189–90. See also Black Colonial Marines
“Rule of War” and war captives, 147–48
runaways. See freedom seekers
sanctuary policy: August mandate ending, 7, 90–91, 96, 97, 102, 105
Black sailors and, 21–22
in Caribbean, 90–91
freedom seekers and, 2, 66, 69–70, 71
Georgia planter concerns with, 83
maroon communities and, 101
restitution and, 86
restoration of, 161
return of fugitives and, 91
royal orders and, 81
Stono Rebellion and, 23
strategy and consequences of, 18–19
San Vicente de Ferrer, Florida, 106, 161
Sapelo Island, Georgia, 115, 117
Saunt, Claudio, 142
Savannah, Georgia: armed Black soldiers in post-siege, 66
Black Georgians in early, 12
Black sailors and, 12–13, 32–33
Caribbean influence and, 33
colonial role of, 10–11
demographics of, 10–12
Equiano experience in, 33
fortification of, 62–63
freedom seekers in revolutionary, 62
hope for Black participants during siege of, 64
layout of, 11
protests about African Americans in, 66–67
Siege of, 44–45, 61, 63–65, 67
social boundaries in, 14
strategic position of, 16–17
War of 1812 and, 189
Yamacraw, 32, 99. See also Trustee Georgia
Savannah River Association of Black Baptist Churches, 191
seafaring life, 21. See also Black sailors; water travel
Seagrove, James: agreement on return of freedom seekers, 101, 108–10, 149
Amelia Island and, 123
replacement of, 147
as superintendent for Indian affairs, 97
warning about Seminoles, 166
Seagrove-White Stolen Property Agreement of 1797, 237n58
Sea Island cotton, 82
Sea Island Muslims, 39
Sea Islands: British occupation of, 189, 195
Islam and, 37
War of 1812 and, 189
white flight to, 139, 140. See also individual islands
Second Spanish Period, 76–77, 125. See also Spanish Florida
self-emancipation, 4, 8, 54, 67, 206–7. See also emancipation
Seminoles: Abraham and, 199
absorption of people of African descent, 158
after transfer of Florida, 205–6
American dispossession and, 107
antagonism with Spanish government, 166
Black Seminoles in society of, 158
Bonnelli raid by, 171
Cochrane proclamation and, 187
as concern for Georgians, 176
Creek defectors and towns of, 157–58
economy of, 157
fighting for Britain, 160
freedom seekers and, 2, 5, 7, 51–52, 71, 110, 176
independent nature of, 162
Indigenous and Black, 159
under Kinache, 163–64
under King Payne, 163
language of, 158
leadership changes and, 171–72
name origin, 156
organization and adaptation of, 156–57
origins of, 156
Patriot War conflicts with US, 178–80
plans for invasion of Florida, 167, 168
post-Bowles era, 175–76
raiding and, 77, 112, 132, 166, 170, 199
ranching and, 174
relationship with Creeks, 155
retreat into Florida, 200
settlements of, 162–64
status of Black Seminoles among, 174–75
threats of, 161–62
Titus and, 106
Treaty of Colerain and, 172
use of enslaved labor, 174
US grievances with, 178. See also Alachua Seminoles; Black Seminoles; Bowles, William Augustus; captive-taking; Creeks; Kinache; Mikasuki Seminoles; State of Muskogee; war captives
Seminole Wars. See First Seminole War
settlers, American: Alabama Territory and, 205
Black Georgians and, 207–8
Creek border patrolling and, 138
Creek War and, 189
to East Florida, 112–14, 127–28
forced migration of enslaved populations and, 113–14
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 6, 8
loyalty to Spain and, 115
occupation of Amelia Island, 177
plot against Spanish Florida, 126
prejudice of, 129
revolt in West Florida, 176–77
views of Spanish law and society, 129
violence against enslaved people, 130. See also planters, American
settlers, Black, 186
1795 Rebellion in East Florida, 108, 125–27, 133, 168, 174
sexual exploitation, 129–30
ships: Diana, 83
Harriet, 108
Saranac, 202
Scarborough, 58
Siege of Savannah, 44–45, 61, 63–65, 67
Siete Partidas, 123, 240–41n46
signares, 36
Simmons, Ned, 8, 190–92, 195, 257n55
slave hunters, 107
slave rebellion and American Revolution, 61–62
slavery, institution of: among Creeks, 135
Black slaveholders and, 95
in British Caribbean, 194
Creek confederacy and, 41
debates in Georgia about, 24–25
gender in Native workplace, 41
geographies of freedom during Age of Revolutions and, 3
in Georgia during revolution, 45–46
Georgia prohibition of, 17
Savannah and, 10–11. See also Oglethorpe Plan
slavery debate in Georgia: John Peter case and, 26–29, 31
petitions and, 29–30
removal of ban and, 30See also Oglethorpe Plan
Slavery’s Exiles (Diouf), 43–44, 102, 111, 223n73
slave trade: acquiring estates and, 54–55
Aury and, 202
Creek confederacy and, 135
Deane voyages and, 219n14
local sales and, 37
Lower Towns and, 154
McQueen and, 122–23
regional preferences and, 35–36
signares and, 36
St. Augustine and, 77–79
St. Marys River and, 167
white traders in Creek territory and, 150. See also Amelia Island, Florida
Frederica, Georgia
smallpox, 34
Smith, Gene Allen, 197
Smith, Thomas Adams, 178
smuggling: Anglo planters and, 108
Curaçao and, 27
Georgia-Florida frontier and, 61, 110
human trafficking and, 123, 131, 167
Ossabaw Island and, 61
St. Marys and, 87–88
social boundaries, 14–15, 76–77. See also three-caste system (Spain)
Somerset doctrine, 255n21
South Carolina: escape from, 21
shipping in, 85–86
Southeast. See Black Georgians
British East Florida
Florida; Georgia; Georgia-Florida frontier; Spanish Florida
Spalding, James, 82, 86, 139, 236n43
Spanish Florida: aborted Seminole invasion of, 167
accommodation of African Americans, 113
alliance with Seminoles, 173
American occupation of, 177–78
Battle of Suwannee and, 200
beating of Dominic and, 130–31
benefit of economic sanctions on Britain for, 175
Black populations in, 114
blame of freedom seekers by, 162
border uprising and, 108
censuses in, 238n11
collapse attracting plunderers, 201
consequences of Patriot War for, 180
consistency of culture in Americas of, 94
counterattack of American settlers by, 126
distrust of Georgia, 105
European-African unions and, 130
failed U, S. invasion into, 125–26
free Black communities and, 20
freedom seekers and, 2, 7, 93, 102, 133, 215n49
Georgian perception of, 176
Georgia planter invasion threats to, 86–87
growth of, 127–28
Kinnard holdings in, 151
land policy, 113–14
Native captive-taking and, 161
opening of settlement in, 112
participants in defense of, 126
plantation prosperity in, 175
plundering of, 201–2
Prospect Bluff and, 197
purpose of new land policy in, 113–14
reasons for sanctuary policy in, 81
Second Spanish Period and, 76–77, 125
Seminole raids on, 164, 166–67
settlement in, 114
settler loyalty to, 115
slave trade in, 122–23
status of St. Marys district of, 96
strategic position of, 16
surrendering to United States, 203
threat of Bowles in, 118
as threat to American Republic, 6
Treaty of Adams-Onís, 201
Treaty of Paris and, 4. See also 1795 Rebellion in East Florida
Amelia Island, Florida; sanctuary policy; St. Augustine, Florida
Spanish garrison, 105, 163, 177
Spanish legal system. See sanctuary policy; Siete Partidas; three-caste system (Spain)
Spanish West Florida: Adams-Onís Treaty and, 201
cession to U.S. of, 176–77, 205–6
demographics of, 78
as region of turmoil, 125
as settlement model for East Florida, 113–14, 117
State of Muskogee: Bowles removal and, 173
freedom seekers and, 3
Kinache and, 170
Mikasuki-Spanish War and, 166–69
as multiracial society, 164, 166
status improvement: Cochrane proclamation and, 187–88, 190
freedom seekers in Indian country and, 71–72
fugitives as British settlers and, 186
protection and, 69–70. See also military service
St. Augustine, Florida: American occupation and, 177
authority of, 161
under British authority, 69
British delivery of freedom seekers to, 226n23
fear of insurrection in, 94–95
free Black populations in, 233n3
freedom seekers and, 2, 94, 231n42
numbers of freedom seekers arriving in, 229n1
outmigration of enslaved people from, 78
return agreements and, 105, 110
role of, 16
siege of, 23–24
smuggling and, 61
social boundaries and, 16
St. George Street in, 120. See also sanctuary policy; Spanish Florida
St. Catherines Island, Georgia, 115, 117
St. Domingo Rovers, 202
Steward, Daniel, 149
St. Johns River, 108, 126, 170. See also Georgia-Florida frontier
St. Marys, Georgia, 108, 151, 167–69, 177, 183–84, 194. See also Georgia-Florida frontier
St. Marys district, 96, 114, 167, 176. See also Georgia-Florida frontier
St. Marys River, 2, 5, 75–77, 146. See also flight; Georgia-Florida frontier Stono Rebellion, 23
St. Simons Island, Georgia, 17, 192, 195, 214n29. See also Frederica, Georgia
Summerlin, Jacob, 183
Sunbury, Georgia, 32
Swan, Caleb, 135–36, 143, 148, 155–56, 162–64
Tabby cabins, 100
Talahasochti, 163
talofas (satellite towns), 157–58
Tampa Bay, Florida, 200–201
Tecumseh, 184–85
Telfair, Edward, 91
Third Battalion of Cuba, 233n3
three-caste system (Spain), 122, 129, 203
Titus: account of exploits of, 235n29
capture of, 107–8
changing notions of community formation of, 110
communication networks and, 112
end of sanctuary policy and, 101
escapes of, 99–100, 109, 132, 234n24
family connections of, 56, 103
fugitive returns and, 105
as “hinterland maroon,” 111
imprisonment of, 108
mobility of, 102–3
notoriety of, 106
Prince Whitten and, 110–11
as representative case of African American mobility, 111
return of, 235n31
reward notice for, 104
Spanish Florida maroon community of, 101
as “waiting man,” 99
Tohopeka (Battle of Horseshoe Bend), 189
Tonyn, Patrick, 59, 75, 78, 80, 160, 230n15
trade, 16, 134, 143, 241n54. See also deerskin trade; lumber trade; Panton, Leslie & Company; smuggling
Trader’s Hill, 88, 134–35, 144, 146, 151, 172
treaties: Transcontinental Treaty of 1821, 206
Treaty of Adams-Onís, 201, 203
Treaty of Augusta, 138
Treaty of Colerain, 147, 153, 172, 248n67
Treaty of Fort Jackson, 189, 198
Treaty of Galphinton, 138
Treaty of Ghent, 258n71
Treaty of New York, 135–36, 142–43, 146, 147, 148
Treaty of Paris (1763), 34
Treaty of Paris (1783), 4, 46, 74–75, 80, 222n64
Treaty of San Lorenzo, 108, 237n57
Treaty of Shoulderbone, 138
Trustee Georgia: decisions and, 10
enslaved experience in, 14
inevitability of slavery in, 30, 32–33
John Peter and, 26–28
Malcontents and, 24–25
vision for, 11–12. See also Georgia; Oglethorpe Plan
Savannah, Georgia
Twelve Mile Swamp, 178
Tybee Island, Georgia: British navy and, 57–58, 72
escape to, 235n27
evacuation of, 46
flight to, 226n23
lighthouse, 28
refugees, 71
Tyger Island, Florida, 167–68, 186
Underground Railroad: Georgia Low country and, 8–9
role of fugitives in, 5–6
Southeast as predecessor of, 3, 4, 206–8
United Nations of the Creeks and Cherokees, 164
United States: acquisition of Florida, 203–4
attack on Prospect Bluff, 197
Battle of Suwannee and, 200
Black Colonial Marine advances in, 194
consequences of border conflicts for, 181
economic sanction on Britain by, 175
end of Spanish sanctuary policy and, 90–91
Florida ambitions of, 176–77
Fowltown conflict with, 199–200
grievances with Seminoles, 178
invasion of Fernandina, 203
involvement in Creek War, 188–89
military incursion into Creek territory, 146
occupation of Spanish Florida, 177–78
restriction on free Blacks in St. Augustine, 206
rise of plantation system in, 204
Seminole Patriot War conflicts with, 178–80
Seminole-Spanish alliance and, 176
Southeast expansion of, 205
threat of Black troops, 186
Treaty of Adams-Onís, 201
Treaty of New York and, 135–36. See also American Revolution
War of 1812
war captives: Black Colonial Marines and, 194
compensation for, 8
Creeks and, 7
demand for return of, 148
evidence for, 141
freedom seekers and, 141
liberation and, 166
planter reports and, 141–42
“Rules of War” and, 148
sales within Creek Nation of, 148–49
Seminoles and, 158
trafficking of, 150
Treaty of Colerain and, 147–48. See also captive-taking; treaties: Treaty of New York
War of 1812: Black Colonial Marine and, 186
British Apalachicola fort and, 187
British naval strategy along southern coast during, 185
British offers of freedom to enslaved people during, 186
British seizures in Georgia, 189
Cochrane proclamation and, 186–87, 193
end of, 194–95
map, 185
significance for African Americans, 197
US approaching, 184–85
War of Jenkins’ Ear, 23–24, 76
Washington, George, 91, 142, 190–91
Washington County, Georgia, 138
water travel, 69, 83. See also Black sailors; seafaring life
West Africa, 35–36
West African ethnic groups, 35
West Indian Regiment, 194
White, Enrique, 108, 122–23, 161, 170
Whitten, Prince: assimilation in St. Augustine, 94, 110–11
background of, 81–82
Black militias and, 126, 129, 203
Wilkes County, Georgia, 138
Willemstad, Curaçao, 27
Williams, John, 178
Woodbine, George, 187–88, 189, 199
Wright, James, 53, 57–58, 62–63, 66–67, 227n39
Wright, J. Leitch, 145
Yamacraw, 32, 99. See also Savannah, Georgia
Yamassee War, 17
yawls, 68–69
Young, Hugh, 198
Young, Thomas, 61