“Notes for the Year 1750” in “Detailed Reports on the Salzburger Emigrants Who Settled in America . . .: Volume Thirteen, 1749 and Volume Fourteen, 1750”
Notes for the Year 1750
JANUARY
1. Even though Germany was divided into a myriad of squabbling little principalities and was also separated by religion and even by dialects, the people of the German-language area still felt a sentimental attachment to the “German Fatherland” and yearned for a united empire.
2. Oglethorpe’s regiment had fulfilled its purpose by repelling the Spanish invasion of 1742. Now that the Spaniards were no threat, the regiment was no longer required. When it was disbanded, the Germans of German Village also left since their purpose had been to feed the regiment and to work on the fortifications.
3. These “Reverend Fathers,” or patrons of the Georgia Salzburgers, were Friedrich Michael Ziegenhagen, Court Chaplain in London; Samuel Urlsperger, Senior of the Lutheran Ministry at Augsburg; and Gotthilf August Francke, the head of the Francke Foundation in Halle.
4. “Spinning off” (abspinnen) meant gathering a silk strand from each of several cocoons, forming them into a thread, and winding them on a spool. It was also called “reeling.”
5. In this mercantilistic age, the British government wished to stop the flow of good English money to Piedmont and other lands for silk.
6. For the Pietists, “external business” (äusserliche Geschäffte) meant unimportant worldly matters, such as subsistence, civil order, and defense, as opposed to more important spiritual matters.
7. This is v. 8 in the King James version.
8. Bartholomäus Zouberbühler had crossed the ocean with the servants on the Charles Town Galley and, therefore, knew which ones to pick out for his own use.
9. Medieval theology, as well as miracle plays, taught that at death one is separated from kith, kin, and worldly possessions and is followed to heaven only by Good Works. It is surprising that Boltzius, who believed in salvation through faith alone, put such emphasis on good works, which were carefully reckoned in the Roman church.
10. See note 3, above.
11. Ernst Thilo, the physician, was then giving Greek, Latin, and musical instruction to Boltzius’ two sons.
12. This was Jacob Mohr, a “Palatine” fr Purysburg.
13. This was Georg Eigel, who would not let his sons attend catechism classes.
14. The four Salzburger transports, or traveling parties, of 1734, 1735, 1736, and 1741, were gradually joined by Swiss and Germans from Purysburg and Savannah.
15. These valuable records, diligently sent to SPCK every year, have been lost or misplaced through the year 1755.
16. Boltzius means that the widow entertained thoughts of marriage too soon after her husband’s death.
17. Since most travel was by water, “behind Abercorn” meant the land behind the village when one was on the river bank.
18. Schauer’s balm was a panacaea manufactured in Augsburg by Johann Caspar Schauer.
19. Sicherheit (security) means the false assurance felt by people who think they can win salvation by good behavior and good works without a rebirth in Jesus.
20. “Customary sins” (Gewohnheitssünden, behavior accepted by society but considered sinful by the Pietists.
21. Johann Caspar Walthauer arrived in 1746 on board the Judith with a party of “Palatines,” mostly from Wurttemberg.
22. Like all the other settlers, the people of Ebenezer complained against the law of tail-mail, which the Trustees had introduced in order to restrict the size of family holdings. It was designed to assure that each fifty acres maintained a yeoman farmer who could defend his soil.
23. This need not mean that he was ancient. In fact, he was only fifty-five. It means that he was the senior Gschwandel, even though surving records do not record a son.
24. Friesel is usually translated as “the purples” or “military disease”; but the symptoms described sometimes suggest scarlet fever, which was called rothe Friesel and was a scourge in the area until recent times.
25. John 14:6.
26. Isaiah 54:10.
27. Johann Peter Schubdrein was returning to his home in Weiher in Nassau Saarbrücken (Now Weyer in Alsace) to fetch his parents and other kinsmen.
28. Bichler had lost heavily because of of a swindler named Jacob Friedrich Curtius (Kurtz), who organized a big lumber operation but then absconded with the cash.
29. Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen, a professor at Halle, wrote a Compendium Theologicum, possibly the same as his Compendium doctrinae christianae, which appeared in German as Compendium, oder kurtzer Begriff der gantzen Christlichen Lehre. Halle 1726.
30. Even though Urlsperger has deleted the name here, it is easy to see that the neglected child was that of Mrs. Granewetter. See entry for 25 Sept.
31. Presumably Chrétien von Münch, an Augsburg banker who had commercial aspirations for Ebenezer.
32. This copious questionnaire was translated by Klaus G. Loewald, et al and published in the William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, Vols 14 and 15.
33. Now the term “the last German people” refers to the Palatine servants brought by Capt. Bogg in 1949.
FEBRUARY
1. Steeped in medieval economic theory, Boltzius thought that prices should be set not by the market but by Christian conscience. A price was fair (billig, which now means “cheap”) if it would enable the seller to subsist without luxury and without rising in the world, these two goals being signs of greed and pride (cupiditas and superbia). He often uses the word “Christian price” or “Christian wages.”
2. Boltzius conveniently forgets the sad voyage of the Europa, which lost half its Swiss passengers to “Palatine fever” in 1741.
3. Boltzius numbered the commandment against stealing as the sixth, according to Roman Catholic and Lutheran usage. In this translation all commandments are numbered according to Orthodox Greek and English usage.
4. Ohne Fühlen will ich trauen, apparently from a hymn.
5. For Pietists, “temptations” (Anfechtungen) meant the temptation to lose hope of salvation through faith alone. People who feared the law of the Old Testament more than they trusted the grace of the New were “legalists.”
6. The text has der where one would expect das.)
7. See Jan., note 21.
8. Cabinetprediger, unidentified.
9. Mitternachtgegenden, “Midnight regions,” a rather poetic expression for “north.”
10. This was John Dobell, a former schoolmaster in Savannah.
11. Although this German trader is mentioned several times, he cannot be identified. It is probable that his name was completely anglicized. He may have been John Rudolf Grant, who appears occasionally in Purysburg.
12. See Jan., note 28.
13. The Uchi Indians, a small outcast tribe, were guaranteed ownership of all land across Ebenezer Creek. However, by now they had moved further up the river and had but thirty warriors, so the British were able to persuade the survivors to sell.
14. Only forty-some years later this little machine was displaced by a better one invented a few miles away by Eli Whitney.
15. Fremde Sünden (peccata aliena) were sins of leading or encouraging others to sin, or not preventing them from doing so.
16. Ambrosius Wirth, Einfältige Anweisung... ec., etc. . Nurnberg 1736.
17. This is the only mention in Boltzius’ reports of the extensive silk business being conducted by his wife.
18. Boltzius must mean “as everyone knows.”
19. Er kann, besser als wir denken, alle Noth zum Besten lenken, from a hymn. This is one of the many songs presenting the Pietists’ theodicy.
20. The immigrants, being redemptioners rather than indentured servants, were free to redeem themselves for six pounds upon landing and could choose their own employers. The two servants in question were Daniel and Joseph Schubdrein, the brothers of Johann Peter. See Jan., note 8.
21. When the servants in Savannah served out their time, Col. Stephens encouraged the Reformed to settle in Acton and Vernonburg, where they would have Reformed services, while he encouraged the Lutherans to move to the vicinity of Ebenezer and Lutheran services.
22. Philipp Jacob Spener, Evangelien- und Epistel-Predigten .
23. The “literal recognition” (buchstäblisches Erkänntniss) meant an intellectual understanding of the articles of faith but not necessarily a rebirth in Jesus.
24. For the Pietists, “honest” (ehrlich), meant “accepting Pietistic tenets.
MARCH
1. According to medieval theory, the sciences were divided into the seven liberal arts, the seven mechanical arts, and the forbidden arts. The last were also called the “black arts,” through a misunderstanding of the word necromancia, which meant “communing with the dead” but was construed as nigramancia, or “black magic.” Those who practiced this were Satanists and in danger of the Inquisition.
2. The Salzburgers first settled at an inaccessible and infertile spot on Ebenezer Creek. When they removed to the bank of the Savannah River in 1736, the Trustees converted the old settlement into a cowpen or cattle ranch and also built an expensive lumber mill there, which was soon destroyed.
3. Boltzius calls this 3 John, apparently letting the Gospel of St. John count as 1 John.
4. Hebrews 13:5; Was soll der Mensch thun?, unidentified.
5. For boiling the cocoons to kill the worms before they chew their way out.
6. Haushaltung, like Haushalt and Hauswesen, denotes the housekeeping, the farming, and the whole domestic economy.
7. To make the pagan incantations respectable, Christian practitioners often crossed themselves or said the Lord’s Prayer three time at their close.
8. Boltzius still refers to this useful building as an orphanage, perhaps for propaganda purposes, even though there do not appear to have been any orphans in it. The children mentioned a bit later may have been patients in the sickbay.
9. This was, of course, on the way down to Savannah. Returning in their boats, they would travel with the flood and rest during the ebb.
10. The three brothers, Johann Peter, Joseph, and Daniel came in 1749 on the Charles Town Galley with Captain Bogg. The Anglican pastor, Zouberbuhler, who was on the same ship, redeemed them for his own use, but Boltzius succeeded in obtaining them.
APRIL
1. The Salzburgers had the reputation of selling only the heartwood, while keeping the inferior outside slabs for domestic use.
2. William Stephens was the President of the Council, the magistry of the Northern District of Georgia.
3. Romans 10:10.
4. Samuel Urlsperger, Schriftmässiger Unterricht für Kranke und Sterbende....
5. Boltzius, as a British official, used the old, or Julian, calendar instead of the new Gregorian calendar, long since adopted by the various German states. Two years later, he, like the British, changed to the new calendar.
6. “Make haste slowly.”
7. These symptoms were probably caused by malaria, to which everyone was subjected.
8. Those who came on the Charles Town Galley in 1749.
9. This was the family of Andreas Seckinger, which prospered and furnished Georgia with many fine citizens.
10. Unlike the South Carolina authorities, the Trustees decided to liberate all indentured children as soon as their parents had served their time, even though girls usually served until the age of eighteen and boys to the age of twenty-one. The Trustees had discovered that children would contribute more to the colony when working for their parents than when working for strangers.
11. Seele! was verzagst du doch?, from a hymn.
12. Wheat, rye, oats, and barley.
13. By chance this was about the same number as in Acton-Vernonburg and Ebenezer.
14. Ambrosius Wirth, Beicht- und Communionbüchlein, ...
MAY
1. This is an allusion to the hymn Was Gott thut ist wohl gethan.
2. Meyer had accepted the office of justiciary, or secular manager of the community, as well as that of justice of the peace.
3. Matthew 5:8.
4. Johann Caspar Wertsch.
5. In this context, “servants” means clergymen.
6. “Our religion” means the Lutheran religion. The old widow must have been Reformed.
7. This appears to be the family of Johann Caspar Waldhauer. See entry for 17 May.
JUNE
1. Nee Friderica Helfenstein.
2. “Still further, ever onward.”
3. 1 John 2:20.
4. Matthew 7:11.
5. Karl Heinrich Bogatzky, Güldenes Schatz-Kästlein der Kinder Gottes, Halle, many printings.
6. Proverbs 1:32. Boltzius writes der Gottlosen (the godless) instead of der Ruchlosen (the wicked).
7. This was the meaning of “Ebenezer.”
8. See Jan., note 31.
9. John Adam Treutlen, future governor of Georgia.
10. Boltzius is referring to the famous Orphanage (Waisenhaus) in Halle.
11. Lucerne, or Luzern, like the three other original Forest Cantons, had remained Roman Catholic.
12. At the same time the Archbishop of Salzburg was exiling his Protestant subjects, the Habsburgs were expelling Protestants from Upper Austria and Carinthia. Most of these were sent to Transylvania (Siebenburgen). Some of them, who had been residing in Regensburg, joined the third Salzburger transport to Georgia.
13. This was Theobald Kieffer, Jr. See “Two ‘Salzburger’ Letters from George Whitefield and Theobald Kieffer, Jr.” (GHQ 62 (1978), 50-57.
JULY
1. Herr, deine Treue is so gross, dass wir uns verwundern müssen, etc. For author, see appendix.
2. Boltzius’ older son, aged fourteen.
3. Er ist ja kein Bar noch Löwe, der sich nur, etc. and Sein Herz ist zu lauter Treue und zur Sanftmuth angewohnt. Gott hat einen Vatersinn: unser Jammer jammert ihn; unser Unglück ist sein Schmerze; unser Sterben krankt sein Herze. Apparently from a hymn.
4. The child was afflicted with pica, or clay-eating, a disease caused by dietary deficiency.
5. Johann Jacob Metzger, or Metscher, was a tailor in Purysburg who lost three children in a boat wreck. The other children moved to Ebenezer and prospered.
6. This must have been a good move, for, when Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg visited Ebenezer in 1774, Leimberger’s widow was the proprietress of a slave-operated plantation.
7. These were the Schubdrein brothers.
8. This was Boltzius’ first reference to trade with St. Augustine, which, until recently, had been in enemy territory.
9. Col. William Stephens had already advised the Trustees that the German immigrants were of little value as long as they were indentured but that they were by far the most industrious workers in the colony when freed and working for themselves.
10. Boltzius is referring to the indentured servants who came on the Charles Town Galley in 1749.
11. The Book of Tobit is found in the Apocrypha and in the Luther translation, but not in the King James version.
12. The land across Ebenezer Creek was still being reserved for the Uchee Indians. See Feb., note 13.
AUGUST
1. Psalms 50:15.
2. Karl Heinrich Bogatzky, Tägliches Hausbuch der Kinder Gottes.
3. Karl Heinrich Bogatzky, Güldenes Schatz-Kästlein. der Kinder Gottes. Halle, many printings.
4. Psalms 51:14. It is rendered differently in the King James version (51:12); Isaiah 66:13.
5. Like Boltzius and his colleagues, the Lutheran missionaries in India were submitting regular reports of their activities, which were published contemporaneously in Halle as Der königlichen Dänischen Missionarien aus Ost-Indien eingesandte Ausführliche Berichte, Halle 1735 ff.
6. Isaiah 45:22.
7. Luke 23:43.
8. Deceased Inspector at Halle.
9. See note 5, above.
10. Dr. Helmut Beck, Moravian minister in Hamburg, has kindly informed me that the first verse cited is v. 7 of the hymn Wer hofft auf Gott und dem vertraut (See appendix). The second cited verse is unidentified.
11. For the Pietists, Elend, which normally meant “misery,” still had its original meaning of “exile,” or “alienation from God.”
12. In Pietist parlance, “ignorant” (unwissend) meant as much as “ignorant of Pietist dogma.”
13. Johann Georg Walsch, Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelischen lutherischen Kirche.
14. This estate, called Good Harmony, was never developed.
15. Johann Vigera had conducted the fourth Salzburger transport to Ebenezer, where he had intended to settle. Finding this impracticable, he moved on to Philadelphia, where he married an English woman.
16. This was clearly Curtius (Jacob Friedrich Kurtz). See Jan., note 28.
17. An imposter who called himself Carl Rudolf, Prince of Wurttemberg. He claimed to have been kidnapped by Capt. George Dunbar and sold at Frederica. He sometimes posed as a Lutheran minister.
18. A medical student named Johann Christian Seelmann had come in 1749 with the Palatine servants on the Charles Town Galley but was persona non grata in Ebenezer because he was a follower of a dissident Lutheran theologian named Dippel.
SEPTEMBER
1. This typographical error remains to be explained.
2. Genesis 32:11.
3. Psalms 68:21.
4. The King James version differs greatly from Luther’s translation.
5. See Jan., note 28.
6. When this proposal was made again during the Revolution, it was a vestryman of Ebenezer, Governor John Adam Treutlen, who defeated it by placing a bounty on the heads of the proposers.
7. Der rechte und beständige Gebrauch des Glaubens. Ein Wort der Ermahnung und des Trostes am Neujahrstage 1750. Ein Wort des Unterrichts von der rechten Art Gnade beim HErrn Jesu zu suchen und zu erlangen.
8. Kurtze Erklärung des Gebets des HErrn nebst einigen Anmerkungen darüber.
9. Hans Michael Held, a Palatine who arrived in 1738, had previously served as herdsman at the cowpen.
10. This was Col. Wm. Stephens, who had recently stepped down because of advanced age.
11. Chretien von Munch again. See Jan., note 31.
12. A typographical error for Zimmerebner.
13. Da will ich nach dir blicken, da will ich Glaubensvoll dich vest an mein Hertz drücken. From a hymn.
14. European crops were wheat, barley, rye, and oats. The Indian crops were corn, beans, and, apparently, also rice.
15. John 11:40.
16. Nur der Glaube fehlt auf Erden. War er da, müsst uns ja, was uns Noth ist, werden. Wer Gott kann im Glauben fassen: der wird nicht, wenns gebricht, von ihm seyn verlassen, from a hymn.
17. Hilft der Herr nicht, unidentified.
18. Erklärung des Gebets des Herrn.
19. The Luther version is more vivid: Die Ruhmredigen bestehen nicht. Du bringest die Lügner um.
20. Galatians 5:19. The Luther Bible says Werke (works) instead of “sins.”
21. John 3:16. Allusion to the fiery serpents sent by the Lord in Numbers 21:6.
22. This was Christoph Vollbrecht, known in Georgia as Fulbright.
23. In the James version this is Psalms 39:4.
OCTOBER
1. Psalms 118:17.
2. See Feb., note 13.
3. See Jan., note 28.
4. John 5:14.
5. Wer diese Zeit versäumt, und sich zu Gott nicht kehrt, der schrey Weh über sich, wenn er zur Höllen führt, from a hymn.
6. Heute lebst du, heut bekehre dich, etc., unidentified.
7. See Aug., note 5.
8. 1 Chronicles 29:17.
9. Matthew 23:12.
10. Psalms 27:10.
11. Matthew 23:12.
12. Philip Jacob Spener, Pietist leader and prolific author.
13. See Jan., note 24.
14. Christian Friedrich Richter was a professor at Halle and also a hymnist.
15. This was not Boltzius’ doing. The “long lots” had been favored by German farmers since the early Middle Ages and had just been demanded, against the English surveryor Avery’s will, by the settlers of Acton and Vernonburg.
16. A widowed daughter of Jacob Metzger who married the convert Gottfried Christ.
17. Job 1:21.
18. The Book of Wisdom is not found in the King James version. It is taken here from the Vulgate.
19. Both Luther and the King James version say “son.”
20. Boltzius uses the word Vetter, although Gronau was only the child’s uncle-in-law.
21. Psalms 37:4.
NOVEMBER
1. Some of the Swabians had paid their own passage and were therefore free; others borrowed all or part of their passage money from the Trustees and were to pay it off by working for the Salzburgers. The Swabians had been recruited in the territory of the Free City of Ulm on the Danube and had arrived in Georgia on 29 Oct. 1750 aboard the Charming Martha.
2. The opening verse of the hymn Gott hat alles wohl bedacht..., by Gustav von Mengden.
3. Col. Stephens must have retained the rank of President, even if not the office, for Henry Parker was named only vice president. As far as the Salzburgers were concerned, their friend Habersham was the most important councilman.
4. See note 1, above. The previous transport, that of 1749, were all indentured, except for one family. Since the party of 1750 consisted of both free and indentured, Boltzius now distinguishes between “colonists” and “servants.”
5. Gleichwie sich fein ein Vögelein in hohle Bäum ..., from a hymn.
6. It is not clear what Boltzius means by Ausdünstung des Leibes.
7. Boltzius means it was the same day of the month, but not of the year. In 1709 he was only six years old.
9. Psalms 81:10.
10. Israel Christian Gronau.
11. See June, note 5.
12. Die Gerechten werden ewiglich leben, und der HErr ist, usw, unidentified.
13. Darum werden sie empfahen ein herrliches Reich und eine schöne Krone, usw., unidentified.
14. Matthew 9:24.
15. From the offing off Tybee Island at the mouth of the Savannah River.
16. Hugh and Jonathan Bryan were the two chief Jeremiahs among the South Carolina planters.
17. This is an error for Philemon 1:20-21, since Philemon has only one chapter.
18. Unable to find a sedentary employment worthy of his talents, Matthias Neidlinger gave up in disgust and returned to Germany, much as the organist and schoolmaster Gottlieb Mittelberger did at about the same time.
19. Now Boltzius calls Henry Parker the President. See note 3, above.
20. Psalms 60:11 in the King James version, 60:13 in the Luther version.
21. Psalms 85:7.
22. In the Luther version she is called Tabea.
23. Libra sacra latina. Sebastian Castellio or Chateillon, a Burgundian Calvinist, made a new translation of the New Testament from the Greek to replace the somewhat erroneous Vulgate of St. Jerome.
24. This passage has been reconstructed from a very corrupt printing.
25. “The listener stimulates the lesson.”
26. See note 20, above.
27. Samuel Lutz was a Swiss theologian of Pietistic leanings; Bonaventura Riesch, the Senior of the Lutheran ministry in Lindau, had taken particular interest in those Georgia Salzburgers who had been under his care during their sojourn there.
28. Pastor Fels of Lindau was mentioned previously in the Detailed Reports, but without a first name.
29. See note 27, above.
30. The word Verbotenus was the legal term for “verbatim.”
31. John 11:4.
32. At Boltzius’ behest, James Habersham wrote a very good recommendation for Peter Schubdrein, dated 2 Feb. 1750 Old Time. (PRO C.O. 5, 643)
DECEMBER
1. In previous volumes the word Eingang has been translated as “exordium.” Now that it has been noticed that Ein-gang is an exact loan-translation from intro-itus, it is now translated as “introit,” even though the latter suggests the Roman Catholic mass.
2. The financial contributions not only provided for the future by building mills, but also for the immediate present by providing an opportunity to earn cash, a rare commodity in Georgia, as Boltzius often attested.
3. Die Macht Gottes an kleinen Kindern.
4. am rothen Friesel und bösen Hälsen.
5. Chretien de Munch was then making suggestions for develping the mills and other enterprises at Ebenezer.
6. This was Johann Georg Häfner. See entry for 9 Dec.
7. Es wird die Sünd durchs Gesetz erkannt, und schlägt das Gewissen nieder: Das Evangelium kommt zu Hand, und etc. This hymn, like many others sung at Ebenezer, contrasts the Law of the Old Testament with the grace of the New, which enables even the worst sinner to achieve salvation through repentance and faith alone.
8. Jacob Hüber of Langenau, who died in 1756. See entry for 18 Dec.
9. He was the child of Pieta Clara, widow of Paul Häfner, a Palatine who had died at Vernonburg. She married Adam Straube before moving to Ebenezer.
10. Beiträge zum Bau des Reiches Gottes, a collection of religious tracts.
11. In Germany Georg Mayer had been a maker of silk purses, but in Ebenezer he was a tailor.
12. Psalms 37:4.
13. Boltzius contrasts das rothe Friesel with das weisse. The symptoms described, as well as the medical terminology of the time, make it difficult to identify the ailments.
14. von einem verdorbenem Fieber. The meaning is not clear.
15. beweisen im Fieber fast keine Diet in Ansehung des Essens, Trinkens und der nötigen Ausdämpfung. Not clear.
16. Psalms 106:1.
17. The Schubdreins came from Weiher in Saarbrücken (now Weyer in Alsace), where all land was under cultivation.
18. This hardware had probably come from the Trustees’ destroyed sawmill at Old Ebenezer.
19. Money earned by an indentured servant went to his master.
20. See entry for 4 Dec.
21. Following medieval views, the Pietist taught that a man should remain in the condition in which it pleased the Lord to put him. The farmer should stay with his plow, the shoemaker with his last, etc. The desire to rise in the world was a sign of greed and pride, two mortal sins.
22. The opus operatum is the work or operation itself, the act of praying or attending church, but without spiritual involvement.
23. Johannes Arndt, Vier Bücher vom wahren Christenthum. Halle, 1731 ff.; Ambrosius Wirth, Beicht- und Abendmahl Büchlein.
24. This was the aged Anna in Luke 2:36-38.
25. No Georgia records mention any group from Luzern as coming to Georgia.
26. Joseph Schubdrein.
27. Jacob Friedrich Curtius (Kurtz), who swindled the Salzburgers in a big timber operation.
28. At first, the cypress logs would sink; but it was discovered that, if the trees were felled and the logs allowed to dry out for a year, then they would float.
29. Chretien von Münch, banker at Augsburg.
30. He must have been a good tutor, for John Adam Treutlen became a prosperous merchant before becoming Georgia’s first elected governor.
31. The title Vermehrer des Reiches, “Augmenter of the Empire,” a title bestowed on many Holy Roman Emperors, was last bestowed on Hitler.
32. The first Salzburger transport had been housed in the Protestant poorhouse in Augsburg while being recruited and prepared for the journey to Georgia. The institutions at Halle were the spiritual and physical model for Ebenezer, which tried to replicate them.
33. The Paedigogium Regium, or royal lycee, was a school for young noblemen.
34. The most disliked of these restrictions was the rule of tail-mail, which stipulated that only men could hold land.
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